African Mythology As A Form Of Discourse

By Richard Chirombo

African Mythology constitutes a discourse because myths, by their nature, are narratives that serve to connect individuals to their culture by explaining nature and supernatural phenomena¹ in a carefully structured manner that conceals real meaning.

Michel Foucault, who is variously regarded as a philosopher, social theorist, cultural historian and an historian of political thought, captures this  aspect very well when he implies that mythologies and other forms of narratives are forms of discourse in the sense that there are subtle rules and, therefore, hidden meaning below the surface of their seemly harmless message, observing thus: “They (ordinary people) have probably found it difficult enough to recognise that their history, their economics, their social practices, the language (langue) that they speak, the mythology of their ancestors, even the stories that they were told in their childhood, are governed by rules that are not all given to their consciousness (…)”². In other words, “things and events” will only become discourse “in the unfolding of the essential secrets. Discourse is no longer much more than the shimmering of a truth about to be born in its own eyes; and when all things come eventually to take the form of discourse, when everything may be said and when anything becomes an excuse for pronouncing a discourse, it will be because all things having manifested and exchanged meanings, they will then all be able to return to the silent interiority of self-consciousness^”3.

In fact, the link between mythology and discourse becomes more pronounced when the term ‘discourse’ is defined. For instance, Bertrand and Hughes (2005) define discourse as an organised series of statements about the natural and social world which have, over a period of time, become formalised into ‘rules’ which govern the behaviour of members of a social or cultural field, operating through architecture, habit, practices and ethics to permit or constrain behaviour thereby shaping the individual sense of self⁴. A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory, on the other hand, defines discourse as ‘talk’ or ‘conversation’ with the hint of a ‘didactic’ purpose⁵, acknowledging, however, that  this definition rather contradicts the word’s etymology, going back to the Latin verb discurrere, which means ‘to run about’, ‘range widely’, ‘wander off course’, among others. In both cases, language is used to deduce meaning.

More importantly, mythology shares the features of discourse in the sense that the narratives’ arrangement is not arrived at by chance, but is purposefully arranged to control people. For example, Seymor Chatman⁶captures this aspect well when he proposes that a narrative must have both story- which he describes as the content, the events and existents it talks about, the ‘what?’- and discourse, “the way in which it is told, the selection and ordering of events and existents, the ‘how’”- further observing that, “For, though a narrative must have a beginning, a middle and an end, they need not always be presented in that order. From this perspective, story is potential, discourse is actual; story elements (plot, functions, characters) are predictable whereas discourse provides variety/surprise. Indeed, literary critic Mark Shorer emphasises this point by analysing the function of myths in society, observing that, “Myths are the instruments by which we continually struggle to make our experience intelligible to ourselves. A myth is a large, controlling image that gives philosophical meaning to the facts of ordinary life”⁷.

However, it must be borne in mind that it is not always true that all narratives are discourse. For instance, while a number of scholars and theorists have described narratives as a form of discourse, this school of thought is not always true because some narratives have varied meanings in various societies. “There is no fixed meaning to any narrative, therefore, and it is always open to multiple interpretation”⁸. Therefore, to brand all narratives as discourse is to deny the “plural quality” of various writings.

Additionally, even Foucault himself recognises the fact that there is “false” and “true” discourse when he observes, thus; “A division emerged between Hesiod and Plato, separating true discourse from false ; it was a new division for, henceforth, true discourse was no longer considered precious and desirable, since it had ceased to be discourse linked to the exercise of power”⁹. It must be noted, however, that Foucault used ‘true’ and ‘false’ in the ironic sense, by which he means that ‘false’ discourse which is not linked to the exercise of power.

More importantly, to always link the term discourse to the exercise of power constitutes flawed reasoning because it presupposes that power only invoke discourses as a covert means of cultivating, or exercising power. To the contrary, some myths relate to sacred history; that is, a primordial event that took place at the beginning of time, ab initio¹⁰.

This, notwithstanding, both mythology and discourse share similar attributes. For example, myths have the attribute of discourse in the sense that discourse is the form myths use to portray a message, while the combination of words in the narrative is, in no way, haphazard. They are, in fact, carefully woven. Discourse, too, shares the same attributes. Foucault aptly observes thus, “I am supposing that in every society the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organised and redistributed according to a certain number of procedures, whose role is to avert its powers and its dangers, to cope with chance events, to evade its ponderous, awesome materiality¹¹.”

However, it must be noted that discourse often takes the form of ideology, dogma or doctrine. In analysing the impact of doctrine on  ”subjects”, Foucault notes that doctrine, as a tool of exercising power, effects a dual subjection, that of speaking subjects to discourse, and that of discourse to the group, at least virtually, of speakers¹². This implies that subjects are not in control of their lives; instead, they are “determined” by language, referring to how “(…) historically and culturally located systems of power/knowledge construct subjects and their worlds”¹³. Indeed, the use of language to subtly convey dominant ideologies and imperialistic goals has been a topic for debate for a long time.

Ngugi wa Thiong’o, for example, observes that every language has two aspects. “One aspect is its role as an agent that enables us to communicate with one another in our struggle to find the means for survival. The other is its role as a carrier of the history and the culture built into the process of that communication over time.¹⁴” This holds true for Africa, where former colonial powers lay hold on the continent by imposing their ideologies through language. In fact, ideology assisted in reproducing “colonialist relations through the strategic deployment of a vast semiotic field of representations- in literary works, in advertising, in sculpture, in travelogues, in exploration documents, in maps, in pornography, and so on.¹⁵”

Therefore, it is imperative that, in order to recapture the culture and history carried by Africa’s original “culture and history carried by these languages (…) thrown onto the rubbish heap and left there to perish”¹⁶, literary works such as narratives taking the form of myths should be revived by being told in their original languages. This brings us back to the point that African Mythology constitutes a discourse, more so when the ‘subtle’ agenda behind revitalisation of such myths is to ‘reclaim’ the culture and history that were thrown onto the rubbish heap.

Moreover, myths, more than the other narratives has the unique characteristic of being composed by a number of individuals, thereby cementing the possibility of their utilisation as a discourse. More so because, “Unlike a story composed by a single author, a myth always stands on its own, with a  plot and a set of characters easily recognised by those who listen to the story-teller, poet, or dramatist making use of it”¹⁷, thereby bringing “divinity into focus. And their subject matter inevitably touches upon the nature of existence, the world over which the gods rule”.

Therefore, myths can be a powerful tool in reversing the cultural and historical damage inflicted on Africa by the ‘invisible’ hand of language. It goes without saying that disciplinary power “is exercised through its invisibility; at the same time it imposes on whom it subjects a principle of compulsory visibility”¹⁸. In the case of Africa, this compulsory visibility was achieved through ideologies imposed in the choice of national language imposed by the conquering masters.

However, turning myths into an ideological vehicle in Africa faces the inevitable challenge that, as in all cases where ideologies are being passed through narratives (discourses) such as myths, there are always differences in expertise over a subject among people. In which case, “members are able to speak or act (only) on the basis of the acquired ideology, but are not always able to formulate its beliefs explicitly”¹⁹.

END NOTES

1. Arthur B. (1995) Cultural Criticism: A Primer of Key Concepts (vol. 4.) Sage Publications : California.  P. 122

2. Michel F. (1972) The Archaeology of Knowledge and The Discourse on Language. Tavistock Publications Limited: New York. P. 210-211

3. Ibid, p. 228

4. Ina B., and Peter H. (2005) Media Research Methods: Audiences, Institutions, Texts published by Palgrave MacMillan. New York. p.166

5. A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory (2^nd Ed.) (2010) Wiley-Blackwell. West Sussex

6. Seymour C. (1978) Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Cornell University Press. Ithaca (Cited in Bertrand and Hughes, ibid, p.212)

7. Arthur Asa Berger, ibid, page 122

8. Stuart S., and Borin L. (2004) Introducing Critical Theory. Icon Books Limited. London. P. 56

9. Foucault, Ibid. p. 218

10. Berger, ibid. p. 122

11. Foucault, p. 216)

12. Foucault, p. 226

13. Gubrium, J.F. and Holstein, JA (2000) Analysing Interpretive Practice in Denzin and Lincoln (eds) (2000) pp. 487-508 (quoted in Bertrand and Hughes. P. 167)

14. Ngugi T. (1993) Moving the Centre: The Struggle for Cultural Freedoms. East African Educational Publishers. Nairobi. P. 483

15. Ashcroft, B., Gareth H.T. (1995) The Post-Colonial Studies Leader. Routledge. London. p. 47

16. Ngugi T. ibid. p. 50

17. Arthur C. (2005)World Mythology (1^st Ed.) Paragon Publishing. London: p.5

18. Arthur C. ibid. p.6

19. Foucault, M. (1995) Discipline and Punish and The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books. New York. p. 187

Dying of HIV unknowingly, quickly

Noises of jubilation fill the air whenever a baby is born in the areas of traditional authorities Mchiramwela and Mkhwethemule in Thyolo District. For some households, however, the sense of elation is soon replaced with sadness as children, billed as leaders of tomorrow, succumb to death, thanks to the HIV virus that, not known to the babies and their parents, eats them from within. But, as RICHARD CHIROMBO writes, this state of affairs could be short-lived.

It could be by fluke or design, but the truth is that there is a piece of art that hangs on one of the mango trees leading to Ndalama Nursery School, Traditional Authority (T/A) Mchiramwera, in Thyolo District.
The artwork depicts a baby, perhaps between the ages of six months and one year, trying to jump into an endless lake.

HELPLESS?: Public hospitals like these

Whatever thoughts impressed the mind of the artist who came up with the work of art, what comes clearly is that the artwork portrays the human being as— although touted as the master of the earth— a diminutive creature, dwarfed by the vastness of natural phenomena such as lakes and mountains the size of Dedza, Mulanje or Zomba.
Shora Kauluka, technical assistant at a community-based organisation called Chipembere Communty Development Organisation (CCDO) in the area, is one of the people who have been impressed by the artwork.
“I think a lot of thinking went into that work,” Kauluka says. “At the same time, I think the artist was short-sighted, in the sense that he or she promotes the idea that the only things that cast man in the light of a diminutive creature are physical features such as lakes, mountains, elephants and things of that nature.
“What visual artists often, and sadly, forget is that some things that cast man in the light of a diminutive creature are tiny. I am talking of viruses and bacteria. In T/As Mchiramwela and Mkhwethemule in Thyolo District, for example, the real giant has been HIV, a tiny, invisible virus that causes Aids. People, especially children, have been succumbing to it without knowing it. HIV is the giant of our time, and not lakes or mountains.”
Kauluka , therefore, treats the artwork with an almost good-humoured contempt.
The truth is that the creator of an artwork never really knows how people will interpret it, or whether it makes any difference in society.
But Kauluka could be right on HIV being the tiny giant that eats through the fabric of good health, slowly but resolutely.
In the areas of the T/As in question, a sense of oppression is everywhere. Just that there is no physical force, like a lake or mountain, that is responsible for this state of affairs; it is something from within; something that cannot be felt through the sense of touch. That something is HIV.
At first, according to Kauluka, HIV created a sense of fear among people of Thyolo District. Those were the days of stigma and discrimination which, in the past, and according to Health and Population Services Minister Atupele Muluzi, were [stigma and discrimination] being fuelled “by ignorance”.
In those days, the days of stigma and discrimination, the individual living with HIV instantly became a prisoner of conscience.
As such, the individual living with HIV felt isolated, haunted by the fear of being ‘found’ out. Even among his own family members and peers, the individual never quite belonged.
“But this changed. Those with HIV are no longer subjected to stigma and discrimination. Treatment, in form of antiretroviral (ARV) therapy, is commonplace. These is no reason to be ashamed of one’s HIV status,” Kauluka says.
However, having passed the stage of stigma and discrimination, having passed the stage where ARVs were not free and in short supply, the people of Thyolo find themselves in a precarious condition.
The enemy, this time around, is ignorance of one’s sero-status, a development that has seen dozens of children die of Aids-related complications without knowing it.

At the moment, two community-based organisations that are working on an HIV and Aids project targeting children in Thyolo District have bemoaned increased cases of children who are diagnosed with HIV and Aids “too late”.

CCDO, which is implementing the ‘Accelerating Children`s HIV/Aids Treatment Initiative’ in T/As Mkhwethemule and Mchiramwela in Thyolo District, has, meanwhile, urged stakeholders to intensify efforts aimed at promoting identification and continuum care for children whose parents are HIV-positive.

CCDO is implementing the project in consortium with Umodzi Youth Organisation (Uyo). Shy Ali, Executive Director for Uyo cites laxity, in terms of sensitisation campaigns, as one of the factors that have led to people failing to know their HIV sero-status, hence increasing cases of preventable deaths, especially among children. 

Kauluka says it is disheartening that cases of children who are born with HIV without knowing it abound in the Southern Region district.

These are the sentiments he raised during a Paediatric HIV/Aids Awareness Campaign Open Day at Ndalama Nursery School, T/A Mchiramwela, in Thyolo.

“Although Malawi has made great strides in ensuring that those who are HIV infected have access to ART (antiretroviral therapy), there has been slow progress in terms of the number of children accessing ART services,” Kauluka said.

A Ministry of Health and Population Services report indicates that less than 40 percent of HIV-infected children in Malawi are accessing ART.

Kauluka adds that HIV infection tends to be progressive and fatal among infants and children who have no access to ART.

According to the Department of HIV and Aids, approximately 20 percent of HIV-infected infants die by the time they clock three months, a development attributed to failure to access treatment.

It further says 50 percent of infants and children die before reaching their second birthday while 75 percent die by five years of age, all this because they either had no access to ART or discovered that they needed treatment “too late”.

“In an effort to reduce paediatric HIV and Aids-related deaths among infants and children, CCDO, under its health programme, is carrying out the ‘Accelerating Children`s HIV/Aids Treatment Initiative’ through which we seek to identify HIV-infected children and link them to care and treatment in health facilities in Malawi, particularly in Thyolo District.

“Our organisation— in partnership with various stakeholders— wants to reduce the mortality rate among HIV-infected infants by as much as 75 percent upon ART initiation. The project is directly working with 20 community-based organisations and 10 Health facilities in targeted areas,” Kauluka says.

The National Aids Commission indicates that Thyolo is one of the districts with the highest adult HIV prevalence rates in Malawi, now pegged at 22.4 percent.

“Sadly, children are ignorantly dying of Aids-related complications because their parents do not take them for HIV testing, hence getting wrong treatment in their localities. Parents believe in getting treatment from herbalists, thereby putting lives of children at risk,” says Marcus Chonde, one of the community members in T/A Mchiramwela.

Mkhwethemule has, meanwhile, lauded the impact of the project, saying it has sparked health-seeking behaviour among residents of the district.

“We all have a role to play to ensure that no life is lost to HIV,” Mkhwethemule says.

The traditional leader says it is not “on, especially because we have made strides in ensuring that people have access to life-prolonging drugs, know their HIV sero-status, among other things”.

As part of the project, community volunteers have received bicycles for use in their community outreach programmes.

One only hopes that, moving forward, HIV will not put spanners, such as ill health and even death, into the wheels of progress.
That is the only way those affected can travel back to normal living.